2018年10月27＆28日托福考试阅读预测机经（版本合集！）

本周末将迎来本月最后两场托福考试，相信各位考生已经做好了充分的准备。临考前来看看两场考试的预测机经，缓解一下紧张的心情吧。以下是两场考试阅读预测机经。

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{版本1}

一.   Literacy and the Vernacular In Late Medieval Europe

一开始说办学校只有有钱人家的男孩子能上，F地方600个学生上一个教Latin的学校目的是要让他们以clergy和lawyer为career,还有—个学校人更多是以artisan和businessman为career的教accounting和方言，后来传播开来了，会read and write的人也有一点了，人们开始会记录家里的收入和生活，还不会read和write的人也能听别人讲而懂一些消息，然后农民和城里人在一年的节日都会put aside work幵始一些祭祀活动drama, play之类的，还有translation—些圣经之类的从Latin到别的语言，女人在encourage translation中也有作用，然后她们这样是为她们要guide their children,文章最后又critical地讲了一下不用会read和write也可以懂知识，举了2个人的例子。

冲刺托福高分，让你离世界TOP 30名校更近一步>>>【免费托福成绩测试】

二.   Differences of Biodiversity in geographical patterns

赤道地区和温带地区物种的多样性是不同的，热带地区物种多样性要比温带好很多，然后举了很多物种的例子;有很多理论提出来解释这个现象。第一个理论是：热带地区接受的光照和降水要比温带地区多很多，意味着reproduce material 也要多很多，有助于植物的reproduce， reproductive的速度也好高很多，有利于多种生物的生存，但是温带地区就要少很多。举了很多例子。第二个理论是：热带地区气候比较稳定;有利于多种多样动植物的进化和发展在一个比较持续稳定的环境中进行，没有干扰和中断;但是温带地区气候季节变化比较大，很多生物要存活下来要能够忍受极端的寒冷，还举了间冰期的例子。所以物种的存活和进化需要很长的时间。热带地区比温带地区持续的区间范围大。热带地区是沿着赤道向南北延伸，是一个整块的连续的地理范围，但是温带地区是分别分散在北半球和南半球的。同时因为热带地区温度较高，所以parasite 比较多，这样就不利于同一种单一植物大范围的生长，扩大了同种植物的地理间隔;而温带地区因为冬季会杀死一部分植物，所以很多植物是单一物种集中生长的。 热带地区任何一个canopy都可能是一个community, 环境适合多种生物生长，但是温带地区则不然。

三.   Eli Terry’s Clock

十九世纪初，钟表在美国是非常奢侈的产品，只有有钱人才能用得起。一个钟匠一年只能生产 10 到 15 只钟表，特别煞费苦心(painstaking)。后来一个叫 Eli Terry 的人进行了一系列的变革，通过简化制造材料，创新设备，改善水力等，让表的产量变得又大、又轻、价格又便宜。原来特别重，不好运输，改善得更轻后，可以挂住，不用专门做 cabinet, 并且中产阶级也能买得起了。从原来的低产量变成了高产(mass production)。后来在他持续的发明创造中，他在 1816 年造出了 shelf clock, 获得专利，导致很多人开始模仿他，同时也促进了钟表的精细化。最后一段提到了另一个人，和他一起把钟表变得物美价廉。

{版本2}

10月27日

Animal Behavior

By the early 1900s the field of animal behavior had split into two major branches. One branch, ethology, developed primarily in Europe. To ethologists, what is striking about animal behaviors in that they are fixed and seemingly unchangeable? For example, kittens and puppies play in characteristic but different ways. Present a kitten with a ball of yarn and invariably it draws back its head and bats the yarn with claws extended. Kittens are generally silent as they play, and their tails twitch. Puppies, by contrast, are most likely to pounce flat-footed on a ball of yarn. They bit and bark and their tails wag. Ethologists came to believe that ultimately even the most complex animal behaviors could be broken down into a series of unchanged able stimulus/response reactions. They became convinced that the details of these patterns were as distinctive of a particular group of animals as were anatomical characteristics. For well over half a century, their search for and description of innate patterns of animal behavior continued.

Meanwhile, mainly in North America, the study of animal behavior took a different tack, developing into comparative behavior. Of interest to comparative behaviorists was where a particular came from, that is, its evolutionary history, how the nervous system controlled it, and the extent to which it could be modified. In 1894, C. Lloyd Morgan, an early comparative behaviorist, insisted that animal behavior be explained as simply as possible without reference to emotions or motivations since these could not be observed or measured. In Morgan’s research, animals were put in simple situations, presented with an easily described stimulus, and their resultant behavior described.

The extension to animals of behaviorism—the idea that the study of behave or should be restricted to only those elements that can be directly observed—was an important development in comparative behavior. Studies of stimulus/response and the importance of simple rewards to enforce and modify animal behavior were stressed. Not surprisingly, comparative behaviorists worked most comfortably in the laboratory. Comparative behaviorists stressed the idea that animal behavior could be modified, while their ethologist colleagues thought it was innate and unchangeable. Inevitably, the two approaches led to major disagreements.

To early ethologists, the major driving force in behavior was instinct, behaviors that are inherited and unchangeable. Moths move towards light because they inherit the mechanism to so respond to light. Although dogs have more options available to them, they bark at strangers for much the same reasons. The comparative behaviorists disagreed: learning and rewards are more important factors than instinct in animal behavior. Geese are not born with the ability to retrieve lost eggs when they roll out the nest, they learn to do so. If their behavior seems sometimes silly to humans because it fails to take new conditions into account, that is because the animal’s ability to learn is limited. There were too many examples of behaviors modified by experience for comparative behaviorists to put their faith in instincts.

The arguments came to a peak in the 1950s and became known as the nature or nurture controversy.

Consider how differently an ethologist and a comparative behaviorist would interpret the begging behavior of a hatchling bird. The first time a hatchling bird is approached by its parent, it begs for food. All baby birds of a particular species beg in exactly the same way. Obviously, said the ethologists, they inherited the ability and the tendency to beg. Baby birds did not have to learn the behavior, they were born with it—a clear example of innate, unchanging behavior. Not so, countered the comparative behaviorists. Parent birds teach their young to beg by stuffing food in their open mouths. Later experiments showed that before hatching, birds make and respond to noises of their nest mates and adults. Is it not possible that young birds could learn to beg prenatally?

It was hard for ethologists to accept that innate behaviors could be modified by learning. It was equally difficult for comparative behaviorists to accept that genetic factors could dominate learning experiences. The controversy raged for over a decade. Eventually,  however, the distinctions between the two fields narrowed. The current view is that both natural endowments and environmental factors work together to shape behavior.

1.The word “ultimately” in the passage is closest in the meaning to

A.noticeably

B.importantly

C.some of the time

D.in the end

2.According to paragraph 1, what do ethologists think is the most notable characteristic of animal behavior?

A.Animal responses in most situations are predictable and do not vary

B.In similar situations, different animal species often behave in similar ways.

C.Even in ordinary situations, animal behavior can be unusually complex.

D.Animal behavior may sometimes include stimulus/response reactions.

3.According to paragraph 2, C. Lloyd Morgan agreed with which of the following statements about animal behavior?

A.Only those elements of animal behavior that could be observed and measured should be used to explain it.

B.Any study of animal behavior should include an explanation of emotions and motivations.

C.Emotions and motivations can be measured indirectly using simple experimental situations.

D.Experimental situations are less than ideal if researchers want to develop a comprehensive explanation of animal behavior.

4.According to paragraph 2, comparative behaviorists were interested in finding answers to all of the following questions EXCEPT

A.How has animal behavior changed over time?

B.How can emotions causing a specific behavior in one animal species help explain behavior in other animal species?

C.To what degree can animal behavior be changed?

D.How does the nervous system regulate animal behavior?

5.Paragraph 3 suggests that comparative behaviorists’ conclusions concerning animal behavior were based

A.on the observation that rewards do not affect inherited animal behavior

B.on the application of stress to modify animal behavior

C.most often on the results of laboratory experiments

D.more on stimulus/response reactions than on simple rewards

6.The word “retrieve” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A.find

B.recover

C.remember

D.hatch

7.According to paragraph 4, why did comparative behaviorists believe that their view of instinct in animal behavior was correct?

A.They had observed that animals can respond to the same stimulus in different ways.

B.They had demonstrated that animals could use learned behaviors in new conditions.

C.They had acquired sufficient evidence that instincts vary from one animal to another.

D.They had shown that the behavior of many different animals had been changed by learning.

8.The word “Obviously” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A.Originally

B.Clearly

C.Similarly

D.Consequently

9.The word “countered” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A.learned

B.argued back

C.assumed

D.predicted

10.In paragraph 5, why does the author discuss the begging behavior of a hatchling bird?

A.To support the view that instinct explains animal behavior better than learning does

B.To demonstrate that ethologists are correct about the limited ability of animals to learn

C.To contrast an ethologist’s explanation of a particular animal behavior with that of a comparative behaviorist

D.To question whether the discussion about the roles of nature and nurture was a valid one

11.The word “current” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A.ideal

B.basic

C.alternative

D.present

12.Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

This view is supported by the behavior of insects as well as animals.

Where would the sentence best fit?

13.Directions: Select from the seven phrases below the phrases that correctly characterize ethologists and the phrases that correctly characterize comparative behaviorists. Drag each phrase you select into the phrases will NOT be used. This question is worth 3 points.

Ethologists

Comparative Behaviorists

Answer Choices

A.Worked primarily in North America

B.Argued that animal behavior is passed on from one generation to another withoutchange over time

C.Maintained from the start that behaviors that are inherited could be influencedby learning

D.Believed that stimulus-response reactions serve to distinguish one animal fromanother just as their physical features do

E.Studied stimulus-response reactions and emphasized the importance of rewards forenforcing and changing behavior

F.Conducted more experiments with birds than with any otherspecies

G.Studied primarily how physical characteristics often determinebehavior.

10月28日

Wind pollination

Pollen, a powdery substance, which is produced by flowering plants and contains male reproductive cells, is usually carried from plant to plant by insects or birds, but some plants rely on the wind to carry their pollen. Wind pollination is often seen as being primitive and wasteful in costly pollen and yet it is surprisingly common, especially in higher latitudes. Wind is very good at moving pollen a long way; pollen can be blown for hundreds of kilometers, and only birds can get pollen anywhere near as far. The drawback is that wind is obviously unspecific as to where it takes the pollen. It is like trying to get a letter to a friend at the other end of the village by climbing onto the roof and throwing an armful of letters into the air and hoping that one will end up in the friend’s garden. For the relatively few dominant tree species that make up temperate forests, where there are many individuals of the same species within pollen range, this is quite a safe gamble. If a number of people in the village were throwing letters off roofs, your friend would be bound to get one. By contrast, in the tropics, where each tree species has few, widely scattered individuals, the chance of wind blowing pollen to another individual is sufficiently slim that animals are a safer bet as transporters of pollen. Even tall trees in the tropics are usually not wind pollinated despite being in windy conditions. In a similar way, trees in temperate forests that are insect pollinated tend to grow as solitary, widely spread individuals.

Since wind-pollinated flowers have no need to attract insects or other animals, they have dispensed with bright petals, nectar, and scent. These are at best a waste and at worst an impediment to the transfer of pollen in the air. The result is insignificant-looking flowers and catkins (dense cylindrical clusters of small, petalless flowers).

Wind pollination does, of course, require a lot of pollen. Birch and hazel trees can produce5.5 and 4 million grains per catkin, respectively. There are various adaptations to help as much of the pollen go as far as possible. Most deciduous wind-pollinated trees (which shed their leaves every fall) produce their pollen in the spring while the branches are bare of leaves to reduce the surrounding surfaces that “compete” with the stigmas (the part of the flower that receives the pollen) for pollen. Evergreen conifers, which do not shed their leaves, have less to gain from spring flowering, and, indeed, some flower in the autumn or winter.

Pollen produced higher in the top branches is likely to go farther, it is windier (and gustier) and the pollen can be blown farther before hitting the ground. Moreover, dangling catkins like hazel hold the pollen in until the wind is strong enough to ben them, ensuring that pollen is only shed into the air when the wind is blowing hard. Weather is also important. Pollen is shed primarily when the air is dry to prevent too much sticking to wet surfaces or being knocked out of the air by rain. Despite these adaptations, much of the pollen fails to leave the top branches, and only between 0.5 percent and 40 percent gets more than 100 meters away from the parent. But once this far, significant quantities can go a kilometer or more. Indeed, pollen can travel many thousands of kilometers at high altitudes. Since all this pollen is floating around in the air, it is no wonder that wind-pollinated trees are a major source of allergies.

Once the pollen has been snatched by the wind, but not everything is left to chance. Windborne pollen is dry, rounded, smooth, and generally smaller than that of insect-pollinated plants. But size is a two-edged sword. Small grains may be blown farther but they are also more prone to be whisked past the waiting stigma because smaller particles tend to stay trapped in the fast-moving air that flows around the stigma. But stigmas create turbulence, which slows the air speed around them and may help pollen stick to them.

1. The word “drawback” in the passage is closet in meaning to

A. other side of the issue

B. objection

C. concern

D. problem

2. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about pollen production?

A. Pollen production requires a significant investment of energy and resources on the part of the plant.

B. The capacity to produce pollen in large quantities is a recent development in the evolutionary history of plants.

C. Plants in the tropics generally produce more pollen than those in temperate zones.

D. The highest levels of pollen production are found in plants that depend on insects or birds to carry their pollen.

3. According to paragraph 1, wind-pollinated trees are most likely to be found

A. in temperate forests

B. at lower latitudes

C. in the tropics

D. surrounded by trees of many different species

4. Paragraph 1 supports which of the following as the reason animals are a safer bet than wind as pollinators when the individual trees of a species are widely separated?

A. Animals tend to carry pollen from a given flower further than the wind does.

B. Animals serve as pollinators even where there is little wind to disperse the pollen.

C. An animal that visits a flower is likely to deliberately visit other flowers of the same species and pollinate them.

D. Birds and insects fly in all directions, not just the direction the wind is blowing at a given moment.

5. In paragraph 1, the author compares pollen moved by wind with letters thrown off roofs in order to

A. explain why there are relatively few species of trees that depend on wind pollination

B. compare natural, biological processes with human social practices

C. make a point about the probability of wind-blown pollen reaching a tree of the same species

D. argue against the common assumption that the tallest trees are the most likely to employ wind pollination

6. Paragraph 2 suggests that wind-pollinated plants do not have bright petals, nectar, and scent for which TWO of the following reasons? To receive credit, you must select TWO answers.

A. They interfere with pollination by wind.

B. They are easily damaged by wind.

C. They are unnecessary.

D. They reduce the amount of pollen that can be produced.

7. The word “respectively” in the passage is closet in meaning to

A. over time

B. separately

C. in that order

D. consistently

8. According to paragraph 3, why do most deciduous wind-pollinated trees produce their pollen in the spring?

A. To avoid competing with evergreen conifers, which flower in the fall or winter

B. So that the leaves of the trees receiving the pollen will not prevent the pollen from reaching the trees’ stigmas

C. Because they do not have enough energy to produce new leaves and pollen at the same time

D. In order to take advantage of the windiest time of year

9. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is NOT an adaptation that helps ensure that pollen travels as far as possible?

A. Pollen-producing flowers and catkins are located at or near the top of the tree.

B. Trees grow at least 100 meters away from each other.

C. Dangling catkins release pollen only when the wind is blowing hard.

D. Pollen is not released during rain storms or when the air is damp.

10. The word “significant” in the passage is closet in meaning to

A. sufficient

B. considerable

C. increasing

D. small

11. The phrase “no wonder” in the passage is closet in meaning to

A. unsurprising

B. understandable

C. well-known

D. unfortunate

12. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A. Because smaller particles tend to stay trapped in the fast-moving air, they are blown much farther than other grains.

B. Smaller particles are trapped by the stigma when fast-moving air flows past it.

C. Small particles that are whisked past the waiting stigma gain speed and are often trapped in the fast-moving air.

D. While smallness helps pollen travel farther, it also makes it more likely to be blown past the stigma.

13. Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

This level of volume is important to ensure that at least some of the pollen reaches a target tree, but dispersing the pollen is crucial as well.

Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [] to add the sentence to the passage.

14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

This question is worth 2 points.

Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the passage, click on View Text. Answer choices

A. Because there are few trees in temperate forests, it is safer to transport pollen by insects or birds.

B. Wind pollination is a safe reproductive strategy for trees in temperate forests where there are only a few dominant species and, therefore, many individuals of the same species.

C. Wind pollination requires production of large amount of pollen, which must be released at the right time and under the right conditions to extend its range.

D. Most wind-pollinated trees are deciduous because evergreen needles compete with the stigma for pollen, making wind pollination uncertain.

E. Wind-pollinated plants usually have small petalless flowers which often grow in catkins that produce a very fine-grained pollen.

F. Wind-pollinated trees must grow in regions that are only moderately windy because strong winds will blow the tiny pollen grains past the stigma.

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2018年10月27＆28日托福预测机经

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